Real-time unmanned aerial vehicle surveying using spatial criteria: a simulated studyReal-time unmanned aerial vehicle surveying using spatial criteria: a simulated study Peer-Reviewed Journal Publication Δημοσίευση σε Περιοδικό με Κριτές 2025-03-182023enPrecise coordinate estimation is a fundamental engineering challenge in many mapping applications. Conventional surveying techniques based on global navigation satellite system (GNSS), light detection and ranging (LiDAR), or total stations involve costly equipment and time-consuming methodologies and may suffer from restrictions, such as occlusions and low satellite availability. In this study, a surveying approach, based on a custom-equipped unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and ArUco markers distributed in an unknown area as the potential target mapping points, is proposed and evaluated through simulation. The UAV incorporates a real-time kinematic GNSS receiver and a gimbal unit, with a simple camera and an electronic rangefinder module. The system demonstrates a real-time hierarchy targeting system that allows the UAV to engage with the ground targets through the camera, measure corresponding distances, record UAV coordinates, and then perform a multilateration-based target coordinate estimation. To evaluate the flexibility, efficiency, and onboard performance of the proposed target positioning approach, the method was developed as a robotic operating system software package and tested in the Gazebo robotic simulator on an NVIDIA Jetson TX2. Several mapping environments, along with varying flight type scenarios, were created to evaluate the resulting coordinate estimation errors. The achieved positioning accuracy is very promising and demonstrates a possible use for circular flying trajectories. Along these lines, the proposed methodology may pave the way toward a precise surveying alternative, as it may establish the main surveying method for common mapping applications in the near future and even provide coordinate estimations in demanding and, until now, unattainable areas.This study was cofinanced by the European Union and Greek national funds through the Operational Program Competitiveness, Entrepreneurship and Innovation, under the call RESEARCH - CREATE - INNOVATE (Grant No. T1EDK-03209).http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/Journal of Applied Remote Sensing171 Chatziparaschis Dimitrios Χατζηπαρασχης Δημητριος Partsinevelos Panagiotis Παρτσινεβελος Παναγιωτης Society of Photo-optical Instrumentation Engineers Unmanned aerial vehicles Cameras Target detection Satellite navigation systems Optical spheres Distance measurement Matrices